The India Model Essay Example for Free

The India Model Essay India is currently listed among the countries having large economies. In fact, India has the fourth highest growth rate following Japan. India’s economic success is not the thing that should be taken into account but the path or the model they have chosen is worth noticing. Instead of relying on the usual method of exporting low priced manufactured goods to West, India depended upon its local markets. India focused more on services and high tech industry which were the main keys to their economic success. As, the Indians focused more on their domestic markets they were not that influenced from the economic worldwide recession which affected many other countries. One other remarkable thing about the model that India is following is the promotion of the entrepreneurs; India is encouraging a healthy competition among the private companies that are being established in the country. India has always promoted economic activities by removing trade barriers, lowering tax rates, encouraging competition, eliminating state monopolies, and liberating industries. India’s current trend of growth is likely to continue and even accelerate in the coming years. India started to develop rapidly in the era of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi who appreciated the private sector in the country which was previously suppressed. India’s condition enhanced a lot since the start of 1990s. Telecommunications has revolutionized, interest rates are lowered, infrastructure has been developed and a big amount of capital has been raised. Even though India has progressed a lot, developing from an agriculture economy to service based economy, it missed out on the industrial revolution which could have changed the lives of millions who are forced to live in poverty. The lack of attention on industrial growth has made India’s middle step towards progress a little weak. This lacking is a result of bad policies set by earlier governments. After Independence Nehru tried to bring a government guided Industrial revolution. Since he did not have trust on the private firms he gave powers to the public sector, making it stronger. This step of his hampered all of the small scale industries, present in the country at that time, as they got helpless against the competition against mighty public sector. Since Nehru’s era government had been neglecting small scale industries, but in the recent year’s steps has been taken to encourage these small industries. It is predicted that in future years India will develop strongly in the industrial sector also. There are several other things that the current government has to modify in the current India model to make India a more successful state. The government has to provide confidence to the entrepreneurs so that the industrial sector can boost. It has to provide them with low priced energy sources, cut down indirect taxes; instead impose proper goods and services tax, designate economic zones which can reduce the regulatory burdens and abolish unjust labor laws. India’s success and glory lie in the hands of self confident and hardworking Indians. They are the ones who are going to determine India’s future. To conclude I would like to quote a famous saying that, â€Å"As you sow, so you shall reap†. So whatever the government does today to secure the talent of these brilliant minds will surely pay off them in the long run, for preserving and nurturing these outstanding Indian minds government has to take some measure to provide them with quality education, proper shelter, food and water. Laying foundations today is definitely going to waive off the harsh times tomorrow.

Film Auteur Theory

Film Auteur Theory ‘The auteur theory can be summarised most simply as an acknowledgement of the director as the primary and shaping force behind a film (Craig Keller). How is Godards ‘primary and shaping influence detectable, if indeed, it is? Introduction The auteur theory or la politique des auteurs was a principle developed in the 1950s by a group of French film critics namely: Eric Rohmer, Francois Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard. These critics wanted to see an end to the â€Å"literary†, â€Å"lifeless† and not â€Å"truly cinematic† conventional cinema of the 1930s and 1940s. Inspired by fellow film critic Alexandre Astrucs camera-stylo theory which argued that â€Å"filmmakers should use their equipment as spontaneously, flexibly and personally as a writer uses a pen† these young critics wanted to break the constraints of conventional cinema. Through the experimentation of different cinematic techniques they began to implement their own personal artistic values in films, as directors. It was therefore their belief that an auteur is â€Å"the single individual most responsible for whatever personal expression (if any) a movie yielded up under critical analysis†. This definition has become the most universally understood of the auteur theory and therefore the one which will be referred to during this essay. Prior to the development of the auteur theory, a large majority of films were produced, shot and edited in a similar style. Large studios, with fixed cameras and the scriptwriter having overall control were the order of the day thus creating a rigid style of film production. The auteurs became the primary shaping force behind a movie, manipulating scenes to fit their style rather than employing the traditional method of following scriptwriters prompts. The auteur theory was initiated in the 1950s by a group of French Film Critics including the likes of Eric Rohmer, Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard and Jacques Rivette. These critics spoke out against la tradition de la qualità © of cinema from the 1930s and 40s a period coined le cinà ©ma de papa claiming it to be â€Å"literary†, â€Å"lifeless† and not â€Å"truly cinematic†. In terms of the auteur theory Jean-Luc Godard was seen as the truly radical auteur. By most he is today seen as one of the most innovative and artistic directors having created his own ‘Gordards style. Whilst for others such as Susan Sontag he is ‘the deliberate destroyer of cinema. Either way Godard epitomizes a director out to challenge traditional cinema. Through his early films, such as Vivre sa Vie: Film en douze tableaux (1962) and Une femme est une femme he began to interrogate and illuminate conventional cinema via new cinematic and artistic techniques. He has since become very much the pivotal protagonist of the auteur theory. Objectives This essay will assess the extent to which Jean-Luc Godards ‘primary and shaping influence is detectable in his films. In the main body of this essay I will consider Godards ability to implement his own cinematic style through several inventive techniques. I will consider his ability to challenge the barriers between off screen and on screen reality through his use of sound and editing techniques. I will however, also argue that any kind of definition of the auteur theory oversimplifies the realities of a film making process and can therefore not be seen as a definitive theory. Andrew Sarris explains, one of the premises for an auteur is that the director must ‘exhibit certain recurring characteristics of style which serve as his signature†¦over a group of his films. It is therefore my intention to make reference to four of Godards films to highlight his during the Nouvelle Vague period. I will, therefore, make reference to four of Godards films: A bout de Souffle (1960), Une femme est une femme (1961), Vivre sa vie: Film en douze tableaux (1962) and Le Mepris (1963) to demonstrate†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ When cosidering these films one of the most common trends noticeable is his need to challenge the barriers of off screen and on screen reality. Prior to the Nouvelle Vague, films were predominantly revised novels put on screen. To most directors As Kreidel suggested in 1980 â€Å"[N]o one has yet made a more modern cinema than Godard†. Indeed, Godard through his reaction against traditional realism typifies someone who represents reality with recourse to conventional cinema. Prior to the Nouvelle Vague, directors followed very strict rules in their film making process in which they filmed in large studios with artificial lighting and with scripts which prevented improvisation. Godard completely reversed these rules in his films by directing them in a very spontaneous manner. Following the release of A Bout de Souffle actor Jean-Pierre Melville who played Parvulesco in the film said Godards movie was â€Å"anything shot anyhow†. Godard himself confirmed that â€Å"on A Bout de Souffle I used to write the evening before shooting.† According to Godard, the reason for him doing this was because â€Å"I liked to be surprised. If you know in advance everything you are going to do, it isnt worth doing. If a sh ow is all written down, what is the point of filming it? What use is cinema if it trails after literature?† This idea of filmmaking was revolutionary at the time and was a way in which Godard was implementing his own directional style to his movies. One of Godards earliest artistic influences came when directing his first motion picture A Bout de Souffle. Despite the film being a simple naturalistic movie with the camera following the characters in a deliberately real world filming realistic images, several factors led to the film being cut, mainly due to the length of the film. This created one of Godards most innovative filming techniques, the jump shot, and an editing method which would truly show Godard ability as a cinematic artist. The jump shot essentially create discontinuity in his films as it would catapult the action from one scene to the next with no palpable transition. One of the most noticeable examples of Godards jump shots in A Bout de Souffle came in the scene when Jean Seberg who plays Patricia is a passenger in the scene when Jean-Paul Belmondos character Michel drives her round the centre of Paris in a stolen convertible. During this scene there are up to seven jump shots in rapid succession of the position of Patricia head and the streets of Paris. In creating such a deliberately jagged shot Godard reminds the audience that they are watching a film, and not life itself, a concept vital to Godard when directing his films. One of the most innovative ways in which Godards primary and shaping force is evident in his films can be shown through his use of colour. In conventional cinema, colour was generally used in order to increase the commerciality of films. When it was occasionally used, it enhanced the mood in separate scenes. Godard as a notable auteur employed a far more ambitious use of colour. In his first two colour films Une femme est une femme and Le Mà ©pris he predominantly used primary colours due to him being influenced by â€Å"modern art: straight color, ‘pop art†. Godard uses bold primary colours to indicate the characterisation and narrative development in his films but in such a way that it does not act upon the viewer in a directly sensual way. In Godards first colour film Une femme est une femme, Angela is intent on having a child with her husband Emile. Emile however, is not so keen on the idea and comes across as rather blasà © about the subject; he predominantly wear s blue in the film which symbolises his rather laid back nature. After being repeatedly refused by Emile on the topic of having a baby, Angela goes to Emiles friend Albert to have an affair in the hope to conceive. Albert despite being happy to oblige feels no real affection for Angela and this is shown as he mainly wears grey to symbolise his disinterest in her. In Godards second colour film Le Mà ©pris Godard continues the pattern of using colour to represent characters personalities but tends to also use colour thematically. In the opening scene, when Camille is lying in bed with Paul discussing how much they love each other, Godard uses colour filters which are seen as a representative of what is going to happen in the film. If one considers that red symbolises love, white incertitude and blue coldness then it maps out what happens in the film, love to ambivalence to contempt. Furthermore, when examining the colours that are worn by the characters in the film, the reoccurring theme of Godard using colour to represent personality reappears. Paul the scriptwriter in the film is seen in a grey suit with blue specks highlighting his passive personality during the film. Jerry the ambitious American film producer is mostly seen in a blue suit, red tie and driving a red sports car which in turn highlights his dominant greedy and selfish nature. In addition, Camille is shown in several coloured dresses throughout the film so as to emphasize her continual change of emotions. Finally Francesca, Jerrys secretary wears a red jumper in the scene when she seduces Paul which again emphasizes Godards attempt to symbolise emotional currents in the film. It is important to note that several critics have suggested that on top of Godard using colour thematically the primary colours are also a referent to American musicals, a genre which fascinated Godard. This referent is most evidently seen in the opening credits of Une femme est une femme when bold colourful words flash up on the screen like neon lights reflecting the lavishness of the American musical. Furthermore, other critics suggest that the primary colours are a referent to either the French flag or American flag which again represents Godards primary and shaping influence within this film. A pivotal part in defining Godard as the primary and shaping force of his films can be seen in his use of sound. Prior to the Nouvelle Vague, sound was employed in film to replicate audibly the visual emotion of a scene in order to captivate the audience and make a scene appear more ‘realistic. Martin Heidegger highlights this tradition by saying that viewers have become accustomed to sounds â€Å"elegant effects† and thus treats them as real. Godard however, firmly believed that in ‘faking sound to captivate the audience, one is taking away the realism which he wanted in films. A point agreed by Richard Roud who suggested that â€Å"even in the most so-called realist film, sound has always been an exception†. It was therefore Godards intention to restore sound so that it would captivate ‘real life by refusing to edit or remix any previously recorded track, which he defined as sonic realism. One of Godards most notable examples of this was seen in A Bout de Souffle. Due to the sound being naturally recorded there are several scenes in the film when some of the characters conversations are muffled by natural or real noises. The use of natural sound reaches a peak during the scene in Patricias apartment when the noise of the sirens bellowing in through the open window actually drowns out the characters dialogue. Rather than being a distraction that takes the viewer out of the moment, the use of natural sou nd here, and throughout the film, only heighten the realism. After all, in life, it would be unrealistic to sit in a room with an open window in the centre of Paris and not hear any intrusive sounds. Jean Colet praises Godards creation of realism through sound stating â€Å"[Godard applies] to sound the same demands as for the pictures. [He captures] life in what it offers to be seen-and to be heard-directly.† Godards artistic use of sound can also be seen through his use of music in his films. In Godards Une Femme est une Femme he begins to break up music in short bursts. This use of music gives the sense of the film as a sort of assemblage different bits of the material world put together in a particular way. This further exemplifies Godards use of experimentation as when asked about his use of sound and music he said Things are there: but lets see how they work. Second Section It is undeniable that Godard has produced some of the most inspiring and innovative films through his use of story line and cinematic techniques. His exploitation of light, colour, and sound, editing and alienating the audience showed Godard had revolutionised traditional French cinema and in doing so has inspired modern day film directors such as Quentin Tarrantino. However, in using Kellers summary that an auteur is simply the primary and shaping force of his films it is unquestionably oversimplifying the realities of the film making process. As Godard changed so much in his films compared to traditional cinema it is not possible for him to be praised for every aspect of his films creation. Godard said in an interview in 1983: â€Å"I find it useless to keep offering the public the ‘auteur. In Venice, when I got the prize of the Golden Lion I said that I deserve only probably the mane of this lion, and maybe the tail. Everything in the middle should go to all the others who work on the picture: the paws to the director of photography, theface to the editor, the body to the actors. I dont believe in the solitude of†¦the auteur with a capital A†. Furthermore, Godard admitted that him and the likes of Truffaut, Rohmer and Rivette whilst taking the plaudits for the auteur theory, exaggerated the significance of the theory so as to establish personal expression as one of the primary values in Nouvelle Vague films. Several theorists have also raised doubts as to the significance of the auteur. Foulcault and Roland Barthes suggest that all creative ideas are moulded by the social and political forces that surround us. They go on to state that ideas are contrived from the knowledge that one has gained from past experiences. If one puts this in the context of Godards films it would suggest that Godards cinematic ideas and techniques were influenced by what he has learnt from past experiences. An example of this can be seen in his indirect use of Brechtian distanciation. Whilst it is evident that he was inspired by Brechts idea of alienating the audience to prevent them from being passive observers can one really claim that Godards cinematic techniques were not the result of Brechts indirect influence? Furthermore, when analysing many of Godards films, Godard refers to several quotes from the likes of William Faulkner and Edgar Poe. These are quotes which could have been easily edited but instead G odard â€Å"taste for quotation† suggests that he is not the primary and shaping force in his films.

Advantages Of Aluminium As A Shipbuilding Material Engineering Essay

Advantages Of Aluminium As A Shipbuilding Material Engineering Essay The use of aluminium in any vessel involves a radical set of production methods compared to traditional shipbuilding processes. Hence, the methods used for the construction of aluminium vessels are an important factor in the feasibility study. The welding of aluminium is susceptible to hot cracking and can only be done using certain processes. It is important to employ the correct welding methods to serve different purposes. As aluminium technology matures over the years, new production methods such as aluminium extrusions were introduced in a bid to save time and which has also proven to be economical. The use of aluminium in naval shipbuilding exists in two forms; first there is the aluminium-steel ship, where in the case, the superstructure is made from aluminium intended for topside weight saving, and the hull made from steel. Then there is the all-aluminium ship, with the purpose of achieving a considerable overall reduction in weight. It is important to understand that though both forms have their advantages, there are design issues that must be addressed related to the use of aluminium in naval vessel. Background 1.2.1 Advantages of aluminium as a shipbuilding material Aluminiums most important characteristic is its light weight. When coupled with a reasonable tensile strength, it has grown to become the choice of material for many naval ships in the world. In a research by Wade (1996), when it comes to naval shipbuilding, mission capability is the most heavily evaluated criteria of the program. Speed is an increasingly important parameter under mission capability due to the shift in the maritime strategy of the worlds navies from blue-water operations that include traditional Anti-Submarine Warfare, Anti-Air Warfare and Surface Action to littoral operations focusing on surveillance, mine-clearing, counter-terrorism and support for landing operations. Ship Structure Committee (2012) suggests that there are many design parameters that can be optimized for a better performance, where structural weight is one such parameter that gives the most out of cost efficiency. According to Lamb and Beavers (2010), a decrease in weight relates directly to the reduction in material costs and operating costs throughout the service life while reduction in the power demand gives a higher fuel efficiency, higher speed, longer range and additional tonnage capacity. Also, aluminium gives additional benefits in the form of maintenance cost savings, where less painting is required. Brown (1999) mentioned that corrosion protection offered by aluminium is around 100 times slower than structural steel. The excellent corrosion-resistance of aluminium owes its trait to the thin layer of aluminium oxide that forms immediately when the metal is exposed to air, protecting it from external elements. The use of lightweight material like aluminium can also lead to stealth improvement (International Ship Structure Committee, 2012). In a timespan of just over a decade, aluminium high speed vessels have evolved from 30m long vessels that carried passengers and operated in littoral waters, to 120m long vessels that could carry both passengers and vehicles which operated in the open waters. Ship Structure Committee (2012) gave an overview of the prospect of aluminium in naval shipbuilding. Aluminium is a growingly popular metal in the marine industry, typically the naval shipbuilding industry because of the wide range of physical and mechanical properties that can be created through the alloying process. Aluminium can be alloyed with chromium, copper, magnesium, manganese, scandium, silicon, silver, tin, titanium, zinc and zirconium. This wide range of alloying produces different grades of metal each with different properties. Promising properties includes reduction in stress corrosion susceptibility, improving of toughness, strength and hardness, improving of strength without a decrease in ductility, good weldability, increase in tensile strength, elimination of hot cracking in welds, decrease in electrical conductivity and reduction in quench-sensitivity. However, the discrepancy of the material property and behaviour of aluminium was found to vary with different sources (Sielski, 2007). The differences come as a result of different standards used for determining yield strength. Some tests were done using a 50-mm gage length that measures only weld metal and heat-affected zone, and other tests use a 250-mm gage length sample that includes the base metal. Shown in the following is one such example of aluminiums yield strength discrepancy. Table (1), extracted from (Sielski, 2007). 1.2.2 Disadvantages of aluminium as a shipbuilding material Like any other material, aluminium also has its drawbacks. The two most important properties of a material are perhaps its yield strength and modulus of elasticity, a structure will be designed with considerations around the two properties to ensure that it is able to withstand a given load without exceeding certain permissible deflections and stress level, where the stress level is equal to the yield stress divided by a factor of safety. Albeit aluminium alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it is to be noted that for every strong aluminium alloy in terms of yield strength, there is a stronger structural steel available. In terms of Modulus of Elasticity, which is the measure of stiffness of a material, aluminium and steel measures at 69 GPa and 200 GPa respectively. Since aluminiums stiffness is only a third of steel, it will likely be deformed three times more easily than steel if put under high strain. Therefore the use of aluminium alloy is generally only limited to vessels of up to 130 meters in length (Ship Structure Committee, 2008); the longer the vessel the more stiffening is required, until a point of impracticability. The figure below illustrates the undefined yield strength of an aluminium alloy as compared to mild steel. It is important to note that for aluminium, normally 0.2% strain limit or proof stress is used for design purposes. Yield Strength of Steel and Aluminium Figure (1), graph taken from (http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=217pageid=2144417131) Another consideration is the low melting point of aluminium. As a naval vessel will likely be subjected to on-board fire if it comes under attack, the loss of mechanical properties of aluminium when temperature exceeds 200ËÅ ¡C (Ferraris, 2005) is unfavourable. Some classification societies and navies do not permit the use of aluminium for structural applications. While DnV, ABS and RINA permit the use of light alloy and AA5xxx series, Lloyds register does not. Brown (1999) noted that the cost of aluminium is roughly five times the cost of steel. Though it may be feasible to replace structural steel with aluminium alloy in view of the latters weight-saving and corrosion resistance properties, but it might not necessarily be economical. Table (2) Current Methods To determine the applicability of aluminium in naval vessels, it is important to look at the current aluminium technology available. The manufacturing and production process for aluminium is relatively new. Aluminium welding like the FSW process was invented just two decades ago at the Welding Institute in the UK. For aluminium usages to be feasible for large scale production of naval vessels, then the overall productivity must be improved. Such can be achieved through the application of aluminium extrusion and FSW as these methods offer significant cost savings (Collette et al., 2008). The existing studies on the reliability of aluminium stiffened panels can also give a clear idea of some of the impacts of aluminium usage. 1.3.1 Aluminium extrusions Adding to the advantages of using aluminium is its ability to be extruded. Extrusion can allow complex design of stiffeners to be produced which can, if used appropriately; reduce the effect of stresses experienced in the mid-ship region due to hull girder bending. Collette et al. (2008) researched on the ultimate strength and optimization of aluminium extrusions. Extrusion allows a designer to replace conventional welded plates or stiffeners with extruded profiles of varying thicknesses and it can be used on decks and side shells, places with large amount of area for an increase in weight savings. This method effectively reduces the number of welds to be performed and also reduces the complexity of the overall design of the structure. The study examined three different types of extruded stiffeners, the conventional T type, the sandwich type and the hat type for use on board a high-speed vessel. The performance of all three types was found to be similar, and the study concluded that the panel should be selected based on considerations rather than which has the best strength to weight ratio. Such considerations may include cost, ease of construction and material fatigue. In the figure below, the joining of conventional plate to the stiffener requires welding while for the extruded panel, both the plate and stiffener is extruded as a single unit. Sectional view of Aluminium Extrusion panels Figure (2) 1.3.2 MIG and FSW welding To consider the feasibility of using aluminium in shipbuilding, it is important to look at aluminiums weldability. Metal-Inert-Gas (MIG) welding, a subtype of Gas-Metal-Arc-Welding (GMAW) is the earliest form of welding for aluminium plates. In the 1950-60s, further developments gave more versatility which resulted in a highly used industrial process nowadays. Until recently, a new and better method of aluminium welding is invented, namely the Friction-Stir-Welding (FSW). FSW is a new concept of welding where the metal is not melted for the joining process so that the mechanical properties remain unaltered as much as possible. The join between the two plates is then softened for the metal to fuse using mechanical pressure. Kulekci (2010) notes that the FSW increases tensile, impact, and fatigue strength of the welded joint as compared to MIG process. Less hardness change and a narrower heat-affected zone can be expected in the welded material as less heat is produced from the FSW process. Higher heat intensity from the MIG process can damage the mechanical properties of aluminium. By using FSW, production rate and quality will increase and production costs will decrease. Friction-Stir Welding Process Figure (3), pictures from (http://www.fpe.co.uk/processes/friction-stir-welding) 1.3.3 Heat-Affected Zone Mahoney et al. (1998) researched on the FSW process induced Heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the 7075 T-651 aluminium alloy. A series of tensile tests both longitudinal and transverse to the weld produced results that showed the weakest region is at the lower temperature location within 7 to 8mm from the edge of the weld area. While the average weldable aluminium alloy displays a 30 to 60% reduction in yield and ultimate strength, the loss in ultimate strength of FSW aluminium alloy is only around 25% and the yield strength at the HAZ is about 45% less than the base metal. 1.3.4 Strength and reliability in aluminium stiffened panels Benson, Downes and Dow (2009) note that as aluminium alloy is an established structural material in the shipbuilding industry for high speed crafts and naval vessels, the analysis for large high speed craft operating in ocean environments have since developed rigorous methodologies for the evaluation of ultimate strength in the hull girder. The fast increase in capacity and size of aluminium vessels has led to the demand in new engineering tools and solutions to effectively analyse the structural performance of these vessels. One of it could be the analysis on the ultimate and fatigue strength of aluminium stiffened panels. The ultimate and fatigue strength of the panels can be predicted by using the Reliability method, which consists of firstly using limit state equations to determine when the structural member has failed. Secondly, to determine the average value and the collection of random variables distribution in the limit state equation. Then the final step is to estimate the probability of a failure. Collette (2005) researched that in the Stress-life or S-N fatigue approach, the fatigue life of a material is determined by applying continuously a varying load of constant amplitude until a crack is observed. However the main drawback is that it is not able to give feedback on the seriousness or the size of the crack. That is where the Initial-propagation of I-P method proved to be more useful. The main difference between both is that when the crack starts to form in the material, I-P method can estimate the growth using a fracture mechanics model. 1.3.5 All-aluminium naval ship With all the existing technologies and methods available for aluminium shipbuilding, aluminium has the potential to replace steel in the future as the main ship construction material. Lamb and Beavers (2010) studied on the significance of an all-aluminium naval ship. It proposes two types of aluminium frigate, one with a reduced draft, the other an aluminium equivalent of a steel frigate, with identical draft and similar in weight. Aluminium ship with a reduced draft can allow for a reduction of block coefficient, thereby reducing resistance and increasing speed. With a finer hull, less power is required for propulsion, in turn cutting costs during operation. The authors went on to conduct an analysis of steel and aluminium equivalent naval vessel design focusing on the acquisition and ownership costs. The findings showed that an aluminium ship can be constructed with just 7.5% of the cost of an equivalent steel ship even though 50% more labour hours are required for construction of the aluminium ship. The authors highlighted that this is possible due to the overwhelming benefits of aluminiums significantly lighter weight. Aluminium ship was also found to have operational and ownership cost advantages. Furthermore, advancement of aluminium technology in manufacturing process and design methods has closed the gap between steel and aluminium acquisition costs which in some cases, shipyards are producing aluminium structures more cost effectively than equivalent steel structures. 1.3.6 Hull-superstructure interaction One of the important factors to consider when designing a naval vessel is its hull-superstructure interaction. With the aid of structural analysis software MAESTRO, Hughes and Jeom (2010) determined that Hull-Superstructure Interaction is a very complex study that can only be visualised effectively through 3D finite element model, rather than an inadequate beam theory. The vertical center of gravity for any naval vessel is critical, therefore it is important to keep the center of gravity as low as possible, either by reducing the size or using a lighter material in the superstructure. Another important thing to note of Hull-Superstructure Interaction is the superstructure continuity with the ship side. A superstructure will participate substantially in hull girder bending in vertical continuation with the ship sides if the superstructure is long and continuous. It will undergo the same bending radius as the hull. If the superstructure rises from the same plane as that of the ship sides, then the bending will be maximal. To exclude the superstructure from any hull girder bending, it is possible to do so through offsetting it from the side sides. If superstructure is not in line with the ship sides, due to the flexibility of the deck beams, the sides of the superstructure can be subjected to a much larger radius of curvature. In the case of such design, then an intermediate transverse bulkhead must be included in amid-ship for the purpose of terminating excessive cyclic deflections and stresses in the deck structure. The above are especially critical as a design consideration with regards to naval vessels. To further complicate matters; in a naval vessel, the amid-ship portion is used for RAS operation, or Replenishment At Sea. RAS operations are very difficult manoeuvres to execute; and it has to take place in amid-ship due to the heavier pitching motions of the vessel at both ends. In addition to that, RAS operations also require a large open deck area on both sides of the vessel. This means a reduction in the size, or width of the superstructure in amid-ship, precisely the area which experiences the largest hull girder bending. 1.3.7 Fatigue-induced cracking In the case of an aluminium superstructure, the fatigue experienced will be even greater than for an equivalent steel superstructure (Grabovac et al., 1999). The cases of similar Royal Australian Navy FFG-7 class frigates which experienced fatigue-induced cracking in the aluminium superstructure were caused by a combination of applied cyclic stresses and stress concentration interacting with a region of material weakness. This problem of fatigue-induced cracking has surfaced in almost all ships of this class. The vessel has a continuous aluminium superstructure welded atop a steel hull, which is prone to a substantial amount of hull-girder bending (Hughes and Jeom, 2010). This further reflects on how the Hull-Superstructure Interaction can affect a vessel. In the case of their study, composite material is then chosen for repairing of the cracked region by adhesive bonding, which proved to be working later on with subsequent series of assessments. Methodology Lamb and Beavers (2010) introduced three types of ship for their study, the baseline steel, the aluminium reduced draft and the aluminium reduced block coefficient ship for comparison. The aluminium reduced block coefficient has the same draft as the baseline steel ship but its block coefficient is much lower than the other aluminium ship. The authors designed a 10m long mid-ship section of a naval vessel and then derived the scantlings using the ABS High Speed Naval Craft Rules. The scantlings include steel, aluminium and aluminium extrusion. Subsequently, bending moment and stress calculations were performed and the results shown were much less than the design stress of 23.5 t/cm ² for steel and 12.4 t/cm ² for aluminium. Reasons for the huge differences were given that most of the plating is based on allowable minimum thickness rather than that derived from the formulas. 1.4.1 Linear Stress Analysis The structural study in the present paper will adopt the Linear Stress Analysis method. Similar to the work of Lamb and Beavers (2010), the material behaviour in this study will only be looked at in the elastic range. In the Linear Stress Analysis, the stress is assumed to be directly proportional to the strain and the structural deformations are proportional to the load. Shown below is the stress-strain graph of a material, where the limit of proportionality is the limit of the Linear Stress Analysis. Considerations will not be made for the behaviour after the limit of proportionality. Where (C) is the proof stress of the material. Stress-strain graph Figure (4), graph taken from (http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/xmm/structures3.html) In the case of Non-linear Stress Analysis, problems are solved by applying the load slowly, and then take account of the deflection with each increment. Stresses will be updated with each increment until the full load is applied. A more complex Non-linear FEA requires iterations for equilibrium with each increment; hence it is a computationally expensive approach. 1.5 Discussion Aluminium usage in naval shipbuilding has been increasing steadily over the years as shown in the literature above. Commercial and merchant aluminium vessels were built with different purposes and intentions in mind, some built for an increase in speed, some for more capacity and some simply for costs saving. In the case of naval ships however, they share more similarities. Common objectives would be an increase in speed and payload, if not for a reduction in draft. It is therefore important to understand what different aluminium alloys can offer for different specific function of the ship. Aluminium alloy as mentioned earlier was found to have some discrepancies among various authorities; this might be due to the poor definition of aluminiums yield strength due to the nature of its properties. Nonetheless, aluminiums yield strength will be taken as 0.2% of its strain limit. Designing an all-aluminium vessel of a 130m in length is an inherently complex task, and the strongest design, most up-to-date methods of production and manufacturing must be adopted to reduce the risk of a structural failure. Due to the nature of the method employed in this paper, where a standard steel hull will be replaced by an aluminium equivalent, it is important to consider the application of aluminium extrusion as a more effective way to increase the stiffness of the hull to ensure no deformation takes place prematurely. As fatigue-induced stresses was found on almost all of the FFG-7 class frigates, there is a need to study the hull-superstructure interaction of the vessel and understand the effects if applied on an all-aluminium vessel. Among the past studies, few have made comparison between a steel ship and an aluminium ship. One notable work is from Lamb and Beavers (2010), which based their calculations on a hypothesised frigate. This present paper differentiates from that in a way that it looks at the differences between the two materials if used on an existing vessel. For a ship that already has an optimum hull form, and re-designing it would be irrelevant due to specific mission capabilities, it will be useful to adopt this approach. Another way to look at it is that certain navies might prefer to build an aluminium equivalent of a steel Off-the-Shelf (OTS) ship like the FFG-7 which has proven to be a cheap and seaworthy ship, than to completely redesign an entire vessel. The design process of a new naval vessel can take up to several years. Apart from that, the past research of the all-aluminium ship with its cost and feasibility study was found to be outdated and non-applicable to the present year. The present research will provide an up to date costs comparison between steel and aluminium, inclusive of costs incurred in the welding process, and with the additional consideration for aluminium extrusions. Also critical will be the consideration of the various methods of welding. It is important to note that there are limitations within this feasibility study. The Linear Stress Analysis method adopted is only accurate to a certain extent and Non-linear Stress Analysis method should be adopted for any future work in this topic. Also, there are considerations which will not be covered in this feasibility study. Factors such as the lack of infrastructure for aluminium naval shipbuilding in terms of aluminium workshops and supply of aluminium panels will not be considered. Limitations may also include the lack of skilled workers and expertise in aluminium manufacturing and ship production. 1.6 Aims and Objectives In short, the purpose of this paper is to study the feasibility of using aluminium as a naval shipbuilding material. To achieve that, it is necessary to include the common shipbuilding material, steel, for comparison. This paper aims to give a clearer comparison, in terms of designs, methods used, costs incurred and production time of the two ships. The US Navy FFG-7 class frigate will be used as a base ship. Designed in the mid-1970s by Bath Iron Works and partner Gibbs Cox, FFG-7 frigate is intended to serve as an inexpensive escort ship. Its area of operations includes protecting merchant convoys, replenish groups, landing forces, submarines and carrier battle groups; also performing anti-submarine warfare or surface action. The frigate has a steel hull with an aluminium superstructure intended for weight saving. The overall bending stress characteristics in the mid-ship section of the frigate will be presented through load, buoyancy, shear force and bending moment calculations; one with steel hull and the other, a hypothesised aluminium hull of the same dimensions. Essentially, constraining the dimensions of the hull for an aluminium equivalent will result in an increase in plate thickness due to the reduction in the section moduli of aluminium. An alternative could be the increase in the number of stiffeners to be used and ultimately, the final design of the aluminium equivalent mid-ship section should include both methods for a section modulus increment. The results produced should show that an aluminium hull would still be sufficient in terms of section modulus to keep the maximum bending stress values under the design stress of the frigate, at 131.75 N/mm ² (Ship Structure Committee, 2002). All calculations in the present structural analysis will be based upon the linear elastic region of the materials only. Through the study on a mid-ship section, it can provide an idea of the stress characteristics of the entire vessel as the maximum bending moment will usually takes place in that region. Finite Element Analysis software MAESTRO will be used to model a mid-ship section of the naval vessel and give a better understanding of the structural stresses acting on the aluminium hull. The paper will go on further to present the costs relating to the two ships, in terms of acquisition, productivity and ownership of the vessels with respect to the current steel and aluminium prices. The results from the study will be analysed and discussed, after that the conclusion will be drawn accordingly.

Use of Technology in Law Enforcement and Against Terrorism :: Technology Essays

Use of Technology in Law Enforcement and Against Terrorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Technology has a definite impact not only on our everyday lives but also on the ideologies we pursue or abandon.   This change can be clearly seen as society has progressed through from an agrarian culture through the growing pains of the industrial revolution, and into the current wave, the information wave.   The role of technology was seen as a tool in the agrarian culture and also as a means for physical exploration of humanity's surroundings.   During the industrial revolution that tool, used to better the agrarian age morphed into a guiding force for social change, intellectual idealism, and scientific exploration.   As the industrial age drew to a close, marked by increased warfare and frightening new discoveries, there was a backlash against the ideological representation of technology.   Technology in the information age has become not only a force that produces wonderful new things, but ultimately a tool in the hands of a very flawed and occasiona lly noble society.   The current views on technology are diverse and cover grounds that span from technology being a way to save, to that same technology being a means to an end or power.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The personification of technology ranges from a way to place power firmly in the hands of the few, to technology being a means for anyone to do things that before required a specialized education.   The publishing liberty of the Internet creates a forum in which any one can be taken seriously; whether they are in truth serious is another discussion.   This liberty of forum is available to anyone with a modicum of knowledge or the desire to gain such knowledge.   This is in direct contrast to the publishing world where it requires a specialized knowledge and education to produce some thing or to become published.   Often the knowledge needs to be combined with a fair amount of luck as well.   Technology has also become a way to put social power into the hands of the few as well.   The existence of surveillance systems, the exorbitant prices of medical matters, and the existence of issues such as the digital divide are all exampl es of technologically based ways to shift a balance of power in an arena.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As technology is always in a state of flux so are our society's attitudes regarding technology.   There is a definite polarization of issues in the field of

DNA Analysis: Validity And Doubts :: essays research papers

DNA : Criminal Identification Validity and Doubts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DNA, although controversial on accuracy, has provided a new means of identifying criminals where there is little physical evidence. This allows you to take a piece of hair, a spot of blood, or skin tissue and make a positive identification on a suspect. Since it's first use by the FBI in December 1988 it has grown to become a major factor in criminal investigation. This new key gives them help when the crime scene lacks evidence. DNA evidence also allows detectives to narrow down suspects and keep innocent people from being prosecuted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1990 the FBI began development of a national DNA identification index. The FBI has received over 10,000 submissions of DNA evidence from police agencies and DNA evidence has been used in over 500 cases throughout the United States. The FBI performs testing for free to all police agencies to help keep costs down in prosecuting criminals. More than 50 laboratories perform DNA analysis around the US. The chances of two people having the same DNA profile is 1 in 50,000 all the way to 1 in 5 million according to scientists estimates.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DNA controls all our inheritable information like eye color, hair color, skin color, etc. DNA differs in all people except for identical twins. All cellular matter contains DNA: this includes white blood cells, bone cells, tissue cells, spermatozoa, and hair root cells. Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine are the building blocks of DNA strands which make up the letters of a genetic code. In certain regions of a DNA strand the sequence of genetic code is unique which allows scientists to identify an individual and exclude others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The FBI, Cellmark, and Lifecodes are the 3 major laboratories that courts accept DNA profiles from. As estimated by the FBI, the chances of two DNA samples being the same is as low as one in a trillion. Critics of DNA say that the FBI has falsely applied theories of population biology behind it's calculations, so courtrooms make DNA seem inaccurate. More than half the states have a mandatory DNA testing of all people convicted of sexual charges and violent offenses, to help in future criminal investigations. Although some people say that this is an invasion of privacy, it's a good way to prosecute repeat offenders and find suspects when only DNA evidence is available.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As accurate as DNA profiling is, there are still many questions about the

Merit Philosophy Essay

In the present society we value struggle and hard work that we owe. The paper â€Å"Merit: Why do we value it? † the author, Louis Pojman, claims that in life we always get whatever we earn in life, what you deserve is what you get. But others have come with the counter argument that we cannot take advantage from our success because of our social standing or our intelligence. I agree to Pojman’s observation of things that â€Å"Good deeds must be followed by good outcomes and bad deeds by bad outcomes† (pg. 96). And also â€Å"Each act in the world has an appropriate response†. In this essay I will give details on the situations where this fits and also discuss the events in which people feel hard done by when others are being rewarded in situations where they should not. Merit is a quality which determines the distribution of rewards, praises and prizes on the basis of good or quality work done. Merits should be served as the prime basis of handing out rewards and punishments. Any person who trains or works really hard deserves a better position. For example, at the office one intern works really hard and shapes his qualities better then any other interns, deserves to get the job over the boss’s son, who spends less hours at the office and trains less, thinking that he has the job in the bag simply because he is the boss’s son. Pojman has stated in his study that â€Å"I have trained harder then anyone else so I deserve to win the race. I deserve reward or praise for my kind act as it came after an ethically good will thinking (pg. 87). The author explains in his paper that praising good deeds will encourage a person to do good deeds in the future. Alternatively punishments are handed out to revise the bad actions. With this we can also form a system in which we can search out the best possible order of people who can perform the task efficiently. For example, I want the best engineers to build the particular bridge or I want the best performing employee to perform a task for me. Being at the top of performing a task gives a person a deserving praise and reward according to the level. Some disagree to this and say that the person does not deserve to be rewarded for a job that has been done efficiently based on the lottery system. The lottery objection system says that â€Å"One does not deserve his natural talents, his determination and his society in which he his living† (pg. 99). It means that anyone having ability, like for example to run fast or to sing well, does not deserve it. So likewise they should not be awarded to sign contracts with different music companies or should not be awarded with prize money for winning a race on his talent. The natural lottery objection is flawed in my opinion. People prefer to listen to the people who can sing well. The persons who cannot sing are being left out or not listened to fairly. The society chooses the persons for their place of involvement. This goes for the persons having their natural ability to construct things smoothly with the most ideal results. Society places a superior worth on the best of the best. It is natural to select the things this way. Every individual first learn and then develops his talents to serve the world. But there are also people who lack the determination to generate good things. These people do not deserve merit for their non serious work attitude. An individual who train hard and have a good attitude deserves the best offered in life. Individuals who do well to others are also deserved to be treated well in return. Nothing like Mantle, whose name was on top of the transplant list just because he was a baseball player. He was admitted to the hospital because he had damaged his liver. He confessed that he has damaged his liver by the constant use of alcohol and drugs. Because of his reputation he knocked off other who were in line and were suffering from liver damage by no fault on their own. Mickey Mantle did not deserve to get his new liver. As we are all human beings, when someone strips away someone’s talents they are believed to be equal. But in the case of Mickey Mantle it was not there and it spread injustice. He only deserved to get the liver but it was injustice to be placed top on the list. This specific occurrence is horrendous. It was an injustice to the humanity. I have stated in favor of Pojman’s paper that high-quality work deserves merit and an equal reward or praise to the good work produced. Individuals get in life whatever they have put on it. It is very unfair to say that people with natural talents and abilities do not deserve good simply because they are born with it. One has to learn what he is good at and use his ability to do well. ? Reference: Pojman, L. (1999). Merit: Why Do We Value It? [Electronic version]. Journal of Social Philosophy, 30(1), 83-102.

Information Technology Acts Essay

The invention of the internet and the growing use of it by children caused for implementation of new protection acts. Among these acts are the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), which passed into law in 1998, and the Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA), which became law in 2000. This paper will discuss the advances in information technology that resulted in new ethical issues necessitating the creation of these acts. Children’s Online Protection Act (COPPA), 1998 As the internet grew in popularity among the public, children began to use it more and more for everything from homework, to communicating, to searching for whatever information is out there (surfing). In most cases, websites required the users to put in their personal contact information and, in many cases, allow the website upload tracking cookies to the user’s computer. Almost anyone could then find, buy, and/or use that information for whatever reason. Children’s personal information could be accessed by pedophiles, bullies, or any other type of creep. According to L. Fair of the Federal Trade Commission, COPPA puts parents in control of what information children put online. Whether studying, shopping, surfing or chatting, today’s kids take advantage of everything the Internet has to offer. But when it comes to their personal information, who’s in the driver’s seat? Parents, according to the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA ) and regulations enforced by the Federal Trade Commission. If you operate a website directed to children under 13 that collects personal information – or if you operate a website directed to a general audience and have actual knowledge you’re collecting personal information from kids – you must comply with COPPA’s two main requirements. First, you must prominently post your information security practices on your homepage and wherever you collect information from kids, including the kinds of information you collect; how you collect it (for example, directly from the child or passively, say, through cookies); how you use the information; whether you disclose it to third parties; and the procedures parents can follow to exercise their right to review their child’s personal information, refuse to allow its further collection or use, or have it deleted. Second, before collecting, using, or disclosing a child’s personal information, COPPA requires you to notify parents and get their verifiable consent (Fai r, n.d.). Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA), 2000 As the use of internet by children increased so did concerns about the safety and wellbeing of those children. When searching the internet using an online browser, anyone could type in the word â€Å"sex† or â€Å"porn† and be bombarded with pictures, videos, and websites depicting inappropriate and often offensive content. With e-mail, chat rooms, and other types of e-communication becoming more popular among children, the personal safety of those children became a major concern. There was no way of knowing for sure whom the child was communicating with or what that person’s intentions were. There have been cases of children meeting up with someone they met online and getting raped, kidnapped, and even killed. There was also the concern about what the children were doing online; there was no way of preventing children from hacking or doing other illegal activities on the internet. The government needed to do something to help ensure the safety of children using the internet at school and at the library. To address these concerns, Congress passed into federal law, the Children’s Internet Protection Act. According to the Federal Communications Commission: The Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) is a federal law enacted by Congress to address concerns about access to offensive content over the Internet on school and library computers. CIPA imposes certain types of requirements on any school or library that receives funding for Internet access or internal connections from the E-rate program – a program that makes certain communications technology more affordable for eligible schools and libraries. In early 2001, the FCC issued rules implementing CIPA. Schools subject to CIPA are required to adopt and enforce a policy to monitor online activities of minors. Schools and libraries subject to CIPA are required to adopt and implement an Internet safety policy addressing: (a) access by minors to inappropriate matter on the Internet; (b) the safety and security of minors when using electronic mail, chat rooms and other forms of direct electronic communications; (c) unauthorized access, including so-called â€Å"hacking,† and other unlawful activities by minors online; (d) unauthorized disclosure, use, and dissemination of personal information regarding minors; and (e) measures restricting minors’ access to materials harmful to them. Schools and libraries are required to certify that they have their safety policies and technology in place before receiving E-rate funding (Federal Communications Commission, n.d.). Conclusion With the popularity of the internet among minors came concerns about the children’s safety, wellbeing, exposure, and behavior. To address those concerns the government enacted a federal law that requires websites to get permission from parents before taking personal information from a child under 13 years old. Another law was implemented that protects and monitors the children using the internet at school and at the library by requiring schools and libraries to block access to inappropriate material. Under this law, schools and libraries are also required to implement a policy that addresses the safety and security of children using any form of direct online communication, addresses the illegal use of the internet by children, and addresses the safety of the children’s personal information.